Written by Devin A.C. Dadah | Jun. 25th - Jul. 28th, 2022

In ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, the two civilizations were sustained by the rivers which they lived along. For Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent, it was the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. For Egypt it was the Nile River. These rivers were integral to the development of the two civilizations. They influence their view of the world, the afterlife, the gods, and their sense of time.

In Egypt the Nile River flooded to fertilize the land at a predictable timetable, so much so that the Egyptians formed their calendar around the natural process. This gave way to how they viewed the gods and afterlife. To the Egyptians the afterlife was a paradise, the gods were orderly, and how they dealt with their dead needed to be exact. The Egyptian afterlife was called the Field of Reeds and it was a place where they could live in harmony with the gods. What contributed with this more peaceful attitude was that civilization along the Nile was defensible from outside forces, due to the difficulty of an army trekking across the desert.

In Mesopotamia the culture was very different. Since the Tigris and Euphrates rivers were unpredictable with their flooding, their gods and view of the afterlife was more chaotic. Mesopotamians believed that after death they would enter the netherworld ruled by goddess Ereshkigral and that their souls would be forsaken to wander eternal twilight drinking from puddles and eating dust. The Epic of Gilgamesh further emphasizes the fact that eternal life as is in the overworld is impossible and therefore people must virtuously work for the glory of the gods. The lack of a defensible desert may have also given way to these more negative beliefs as Mesopotamia was subject to frequent conquest and warfare.

With rulers like Sargon of Akkad and Narmer we see that they were both emperors that unified separate city-states and regions. In Mesopotamia the Akkadian Empire unified many city-states such as Assur and Ur, while in Egypt, Narmer unified both Upper and Lower Egypt. Later the Hyksos (1652 BCE) used their advanced weapons of war (chariot) to conquer the Egyptians, while in Mesopotamia the Assyrians used their advanced weapons of war (iron weapons) to conquer a great many lands in Mesopotamia. We see this parallel continue throughout the two civilizations as empires and dynasties fight for power. In Egypt we see the emergence of the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BCE), Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BCE), and New Kingdom (1550-1069 BCE). In Mesopotamia we see the emergence of the Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian Empires. Later this warfare continued with the Assyrians conquering the Babylonian Kassite Dynasty (1225 BCE), then later the Neo-Babylonians conquering the Assyrians (625-585 BCE).

It is because of the chaotic nature of their world that the Mesopotamians would build great ziggurats, where they would place offerings to appease the gods. Similarly, the Egyptians would build great pyramids as godly offerings and tombs of pharaohs. This gave way to hierarchy in the two civilizations. Priests and priestesses acted as individuals with direct connection to the gods. Both religions were polytheistic, meaning they believed in multiple gods and often these gods were believed to have a direct influence on the world. In Mesopotamia the demon god Pazuzu (West Wind) may have been used to explain stormy skies, but also was placed in homes or worn as pendants on pregnant women to ward away evil.

The significance of the bull or cow is also found in both civilizations. They are personified as godly, holy, or divine figures. On Ishtar Gate we see lions, bulls, and dragons on the gate associated with their various gods to guard Babylon. The bull was often associated with the god Adad, the giver and destroyer. In Egypt, Narmer is shown personified as a bull destroying his enemies. The bull in Egypt was associated with the goddess Bat, a savior of sorts. Art and architecture were a big part of the two civilizations and tells us about how they viewed themselves. In Egypt, we see that people are depicted as slender hardworking people. In Mesopotamia, the people there are depicted as more muscular, in traditionally significant clothing, or amid warfare. This suggests to us that there was a need for a more nationalistic sentiment in the kingdoms of Mesopotamia. The roles of gods having specific purposes also adds to this notion. For example, Marduk was specifically the Protector of Babylon, whereas Ashur served as the god telling the Assyrians to conquer more land. The Assyrians believed that if they did not conquer land forever then Ashur would make the world end. We see that in both Babylon and Assyria, their deities were nationalistic deities designed to unify the country.

Writing in both civilizations was an essential form of goods transaction, taxation, and documentation. Cuneiform was the written word in Mesopotamia, whereas Egypt used a form of pictographs known as Hieroglyphics. In these systems of trade beer became a prime currency in Egypt and Mesopotamia.

In conclusion, Mesopotamia, and Egypt were very similar due to their shared geographic regions and technological advancements. They were civilizations which lasted thousands of years, whose ripple effects are felt today. Some could argue that these civilizations never went away and only lived on and evolved. The ruins of the city of Nineveh are very close to today’s city of Mosul, the ruins of Babylon are very close to today’s city of Baghdad. The Nile is a river which still sustains Egypt till this day, while the Tigris and Euphrates sustain Iraq. Even today, masgouf, a 5,000-year-old Mesopotamian dish, is the national dish of Iraq. The significance of these two civilizations is ingrained in the history of humanity and as more archeological discoveries are made, they will continue to enrich our understanding of human history.

Ancient Empires

In China, rule wasn’t too dissimilar from kingdoms around the world. Like in Egypt or Assyria, the king or emperor was given a divine decree to rule. In China they called this the Mandate of Heaven. What was unique about the Chinese version of divine rule was that it was also a way to view the world. Instead of a linear view of time, the Chinese viewed time cyclically. This repeating pattern of time was referred to as the dynastic cycle: the necessary relationship between an emperor and those living under the rule of that emperor. In the dynastic cycle the emperor is to establish peace, order, wealth, and prosperity. When this period ends, it means that the emperor is corrupt and it is therefore up to the people to expel this corruption through revolution. Philosophies became a major hallmark of Chinese society. Legalism, Confucianism, Taoism, and the writings of Sun Tzu articulated everything from cultural norms to conducting warfare. 

In Greece, the various ruling countries were split up into city-states. This structure is witnessed during the Mycenaean rule (1400 BCE) over Greece and continues into the Archaic Age (800-480 BCE). These eras of Greece were met with constant warfare and political strife. While other civilizations were uniting and warring over vast swaths of land, the Greeks were vying over small swaths of territory and political dominance. After the invasion of the Sea Peoples, the Greek city-states entered the Archaic Age, and established strong trade links throughout the Mediterranean. They borrow ideas, philosophies, technologies, and language from various different civilizations. This gave way to the Iron Age (600-500 BCE) which allowed for those of a less wealthy class to join the military, since bronze was too expensive. Depending on the polis (city-state) this would determine the type of political ideology which ruled. For example, in Athens, they had a democratic system of government. All male citizens could vote if they served in the military or enlisted as a rower. In Sparta, they were an agrarian slave state, led by an oligarchy, with the King of Sparta as the top military commander. Athens was “ruled by the many,” whereas Sparta was “ruled by the few.”

In Persia, the Achaemenid Empire (559-331 BCE) would become the largest in the world (during that time) and rule over a diverse and massive expanse of land. The Persian Kings did enact divine rule as a means of control. However, the Persians did not enforce their culture or language on the conquered peoples. While non-Persians had to pay taxes and serve in the military, it does not seem they where subject to genocide or ethnic cleansing. The Persians conquered over 100+ different ethnic groups and established satraps (governors) in each of the provinces in order to control and collect taxes from certain ethnic groups. Their society valued communication as an important factor for controlling such a vast empire and established a complex network of roads. This network was so advanced that couriers in the kingdom could travel 1,677 miles in one week. It is because of their ability to rule a diverse empire and communicate quickly, that people feared the Persians.

The Mandate of Heaven outlines a constant struggle between good and evil found in many theologies around the world. Interestingly, the Duke of Zhou issued the Mandate of Heaven in order to convince his subjects to accept his rule over the Shang Dynasty (1600-1056 BCE). Thus, we see an interconnectedness between heaven and earth as a way of justifying rule and controlling the commoners.

In Persia, we see a similar pattern with key differences in “divine rule.” The Persian Kings indeed saw themselves in the likeness of their god, but as a way to enforce hierarchy and kingship. The Persian method of rule did not require internal conflict amongst the people in order to oust corruption, unlike in China. While Persia did have rebellion breakout throughout the vast empire, it was impeded through the fear that Persian divinity was stronger than the divinity of the governed ethnic groups. We see this with the Ionian Revolt (499 BCE). If Greek mythology stated that revolution was a requirement of divine decree, then it’s probable that other Greek city-states would join in the revolt. We can pull the relationship between liberative revolution and theology from later historical examples. Moses and the Jews used theology to push themselves out of persecution, from Egypt. The Buddha used enlightenment in order to liberate himself and others from the suffering of the world, as well as the oppressive aspects of the Hindu caste system. Christians used their theology to give them hope during their persecution from the Roman Empire. Islam was used to liberate the people of Mecca and Medina, during an era where polytheism was used as a means of strict control. Even as recently as the 1960s we cannot ignore the Christian liberation theology adopted by the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the Islamic liberation theology adopted by Malcolm X in the fight towards racial equality. We see in all these historical examples the power that religious traditions can have to lift up a people. Therefore, the requirement of theological revolution is a flaw in Chinese dynastic rule.

Divine rule didn’t seem to have much merit among the Greeks. In the ancient Greek religion: comparing yourself to a god or goddess looks to be sacrilegious. Stories depict this relationship in the Greek mythos, such as Athena and Arachnae, Leto and the Rustics, or Artemis and Acteaon. The gods' interactions with mortals in Greek mythology are usually to warn the Greek people not to mess with the gods. Even demigods (half-mortal and half-god) are reserved for the Greek mythos.

When comparing Greece and Persia during this time period, we see that it isn’t until the failures of Xerxes that the Greek city-states see the power in unity. While democracy is a powerful and preferable political system, it is only reserved for a certain class and gender in Greece. It also seems as though democracy is only in a few city-states. A country like Sparta was an militant oligarchical slave-state. Furthermore, it is hard to envision efficiency or stability if your civilizations are in a constant state of war. We also cannot overstate the power of diversity in Persia. Diversity means infinite possibilities. While it may cause strife, it usually opens the door for cultures to learn and mix with each other. Cultures will share food, resources, technologies, traditions, ideas, and philosophies. In history we see the largest empires are the ones that thrive off of diversity. Even Greece thrives off diversity as it borrows from other civilizations and later in Greek history we see Macedonia profit off this same diversity.

The Achaemenid Empire (Persian Empire) was the most efficient in ruling its society, during this time period. The only failure I see in Persian leadership is that their military was mostly made up of non-Persians; and some Persian Kings were blinded by greed and revenge. Despite this, the taxation system implemented by the Persians ensured that wealth was distributed and that they stayed in power. Tolerance of others by the dominant culture also meant less uprisings, the exchange of ideas, philosophies, and traditions. An efficient system of satraps to enforce taxation meant the presence of the Persian Empire was a constant reminder to conquered peoples. Furthermore, the geographical position of the Persian Empire is a key factor in being a trade hub between Africa, Europe, and East Asia. It is these factors which made the Persian Empire one of the most efficient and formidable empires in ancient history.

The Politics of Antiquity

The Roman Empire of the Mediterranean and the Qin Dynasty of China became the most interesting and powerful civilizations of antiquity. What is evident in these two civilizations is that their successful rule is due to them putting the power back into the hands of the people. From the declarations of Marius and the Tribal Assembly, to the legal reforms by Shang Yang, we see that the true might of an empire comes from its people. The implementation of lenient social and economic reforms allowed for resurgence and reinvigoration of these two empires, but the eventual reinstatement of oppressive governance led to their imperial decline.

In Rome the people had revolted against their Etruscan oppressors, after the rape and humiliation of their noble woman Lucretia enraged the Roman people. The rebellion was successful, which gave way to a new era: the Roman Republic (509 BCE). After the rebellion the Romans realized that the monarchical form of government corrupts. This is because it places too much power in the hands of one person or family. Thus, following their Greek ancestors, the Romans created a more democratic form of governance. In this new Roman society all males, no matter their class, were able to vote for representatives of their specific region who would represent their interests in the Senate. The Roman Senate was a collection of 300 members who had the power to instill new laws and veto leadership. However, it was questioned if these representatives, these pseudo-noblemen, were representing the true interests of the people.

In China a similar situation was emerging, not initiated by oppressive governance, but by war. The Qin Dynasty, surrounded by a fractured and warring collection of states, needed to urgently reform its society if it wanted to survive. This sense of urgency gave way to the philosopher Shang Yang (390-338 BCE): a legalist theorist who believed that agriculture was “the root of all wealth.” Shang Yang instituted the Qin Land Reform which dissolved the ownership of large plots of land by a single landlord, instead opting for a small farm plot, independent single farmer approach to the economy. This action stripped the power from the nobles. Now the people were in control of their own farms. The previously imposed class system was also dissolved. Individual title and rank was now based on their job performance and loyalty to the state, instead of their family lineage. Shang Yang in conjunction with the Qin Dynasty implemented strict laws which spread throughout the kingdom in order to instill fear. Failure to abide by these laws would result in strict punishment, such as boiling one alive or severing one's limbs. Collective liability or punishment known as Mie Zu (translation: destruction of lineage) is also enacted in order to ensure complete loyalty to the state. It is because of these social and economic reforms that the Qin Dynasty is able to mobilize its armies and conquer the rival states and unify China.

Back in Rome a similar figure led the way for social reforms. Gaius Marius (107 BCE) imposed social reforms which demolished the system that required military personnel to be wealthy landowners. Marius, low on men, gave the poor control of their own destiny by giving them weapons and training them how to fight. After successful imperial excursions against the North African kingdoms and Germanic tribes, Marius decided to retire his army of 50,000 men. Following in the footsteps of the assassinated Tiberius Gracchus (133 BCE), Marius asked the Senate to provide his brave soldiers with land. The Senate rejected this proposal, so Marius turned to the Tribal Assembly. This state assembly run by the people approved his request and a chunk of land was provided for his troops. Since Marius has 50,000 soldiers at his disposal, the Senate could not assassinate Marius, like they did with Gracchus 20 years prior. It is this event which initiates enormous changes in Rome.

China continued its era of prosperity under the direction of emperor Qin Shi Huang Di (King Zheng) and his trusted advisor Li Si. Under their direction, a new standard of currency was adopted, imperial highways were constructed, and 4,000 miles of wall were constructed to keep out the Xiongnu: pastoralists of the Northern steppe-lands. King Zheng re-instituted the Mandate of Heaven and declared himself a Son of Heaven. Over the years King Zheng became extremely paranoid. He saw any criticism of his rule as the brewing of revolution. The emperor began cracking down on any political dissent and freedom of speech. The Confucianists dealt with the main brunt of this persecution. Their philosophy was outlawed and in the writings of Confucius scholars it is said that their books were burned and scholars buried alive.

Similarly, the Romans had to contend with the growing Christian religion. They began persecuting the Christians by throwing them in coliseums and estranging them culturally. Nero (64 CE) and Diocletian (300 CE) began a series of executions and persecutions of the Christian people. Diocletian instituted an imperial mandate which required a sacrifice to the Roman gods and certification as proof of this sacrifice. He did this in order to oust the Christians as non-believers. In the year 303 CE, the emperor Diocletian began to purge the Christians of their sacred books and meeting places in response to their growing numbers.

We see that in both China and Rome, social and economic reforms which prioritized the rights of the people, gave way to the imperial power which allowed them to conquer other civilizations. In China, it was the focus on small-scale farming and destruction of nobility which instilled trust and cooperation with the state. Their economic might allowed them to conquer their enemies and build immense structures such as their imperial highways, Great Wall of China, and mausoleum to King Zheng. In Rome, arming the poorer classes meant that they could conquer their enemies to the North and South. The advent of democratic leadership provided land and housing for military veterans and the homeless. Eventually, these civilizations became strict as they saw how philosophies combated their rule. Both the Qin Dynasty and Roman empire ruthlessly persecuted religious minorities within their empire. It is the reimplementation of oppressive structures which would lead to the decline of these two empires. Learning from their mistakes we see that a successful empire was a direct result of more lenient social and economic reforms. The toppling of elitism and a more democratic or people-focused idea of governance spurred cooperation amongst the people. Power comes from the people and to treat the people as if they are the government leads the way for a long lasting and equitable civilization.

The Middle Ages

The rise of warlike nomadic-pastoralist civilizations gave way to an era we now call the Middle Ages (500-1500 CE). Xiongnu of the Asian steppe, Germanic tribes of Northern Europe, and Bedouins of Arabia tore down dominant empires and dramatically reset the power balance of the ancient world. What was a period in human history erroneously brushed off as a period of intellectual recession and mislabeled as the “Dark Ages,” has been rectified, in recent years, as a period which paved the way for the Modern Era. Historians today characterize the Middle Ages as one of intellectual complexity, cultural exchange, and monotheistic awakening.

The Islamic Golden Age (8th-13th [possibly 16th] centuries) was one of these intellectually complex eras of the Middle Ages. Advances in the fields of medicine, science, mathematics, literature, and the arts flourished during this period. The creation of Arabic numerals meant that more advanced mathematics such as arithmetic, cryptography, geometry, trigonometry, algebra, and calculus could be discovered. A fascination with the stars would yield the construction of astronomical observatories throughout the Middle East and North Africa. Interest in medicine led to public hospitals, psychiatric hospitals, and advancements in dental care. Religious universities would be established in North Africa, such as the University of al-Qarawiyyin (857, Morocco) and Al-Azhar University (972, Egypt). Muslims also preserved and normalized the literature of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Scholars at the House of Wisdom (754-1258, Iraq) translated Greco-Roman works into Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Hebrew, Sindhi, and Latin. Original works such as One Thousand and One Nights became historically significant: featuring characters such as Aladdin, Alibaba, and Sinbad. The advancements of the Islamic Golden Age were extensive and birthed many modern academic traditions. Tolerance in Arab rule meant that cross-cultural and religious pollination occurred. This was important for the influence of philosophy, language, and music. European instruments such as the guitar and violin would find their ancestry in the Arabic oud and rebec. The Arabic language would also see various dialects form and greatly influence English, French, and Spanish.

In China, the Tang Dynasty (618-907) had strong trade routes with the Arab, African, and Indian worlds. Utilizing the Silk Road, the Tang Dynasties capital, Chang‘an, secured itself as a trade hub and became one of the most sophisticated and wealthiest capitals of the Middle Ages. Later, the Song Dynasty (960-1279) emerged as a more centralized state. It reconstructed its political system into one that upholds Confucius ideals. In this new political system citizens would take the Civil Service Exam (650-1905). This exam was split up into four series: the local government (county), regional government (prefect), state government (provincial), and federal government (palace). Students who passed the previous exam would move up into more complex exams and ultimately compete for the best government positions. This system of governance was the first known meritocracy. The idea of a meritocratic form of government is that the rule of the nobility or elitist class corrupts, and the rule of the people harbors chaos. In meritocratic theory, the reasons for this can be muddled down to not being educated. If an individual is uneducated, then they will not know how to rule. This is emphasized in Confucius teachings and is the foundation for the Song Dynasty's decision of a meritocratic form of rule. During the Middle Ages the Chinese would also invent printing. The inventions of papermaking and printing would prove extremely important for the perpetuity of education around the world. Printing meant that education was no longer reserved for scholars and could be exported to the masses. This would increase literacy rates and advance mathematics, medicine, astronomy, geography, philosophy, and literature.

In Europe, feudal society hindered the advancements of the region. Education was limited to the wealthy and noble classes, leaving many people uneducated. Eventually, pressure of war from the Seljuk Turks, and exploits of the First Crusades, birthed the necessity for a more educated society. By the year 1000, citizens could receive formal higher education in four places: the courts to become a legal clerk, cathedrals to become a religious leader, apprenticeships to become physicians, lawyers (etc.), or the monasteries for educating children. A century after these practices were established, we saw the first secular universities emerge in Europe. These were a collection of four universities: University of Bologna (1088, Italy), University of Paris (1150-1970, France), University of Oxford (1096, England), and the University of Cambridge (1209, England). Despite the advent of these universities, it was still rare to see peasants break through the class structure using education.

As we can see the errors of historians are heavy in their mischaracterization of the Middle Ages. We see that the Middle Ages was the opposite of an intellectual recession. Instead, civilizations of this period propelled humanity into the Modern Era, where we have seen rapid technological and intellectual progress. It is possible that early European historians placed too much value on the Roman Empire. This is more evident in the way that it collapsed. The Eastern Roman Empire was conquered by Germanic “barbarian” tribes. It did not dissolve due to internal conflict, or another “civilized” outside force. A society seen as “barbaric,” “primitive,” and “uncivilized” took it over, therefore barbarizing Roman society and the people of Europe.

From a theological perspective, it may also be that early historians needed a way to signify the cosmic war between “good” and “evil.” Therefore, the “Dark Ages” was seen as a period of “darkness,” where demonic forces ruled; but eventually Europe would enter the Renaissance, a period of “light,” where divine forces ruled. Categorizing the Middle Ages as the “Dark Ages” signifies to Europe that they overcame the barbarity and are moving closer towards the “kingdom of heaven.” Orientalism and Islamophobia may have also contributed to this interpretation. That the “righteous Christian Europeans” overcame the “uncivilized Easterners” and Islamic conquerors.

There are many layers to the “Dark Ages” characterization. When analyzing the historical evidence, it is apparent that this characterization is false. Modern historians and scholars today see the Middle Ages as an era of great advancements. Despite this, the term “Dark Ages” has been ingrained in popular culture. It is used to either romanticize, dramatize, or blatantly mischaracterize medieval history. Emphasis is placed on pandemics, epidemics, and war, to leave out the “boring” intellectual parts of the era. It is also possible that the focus on European feudal societies in Westerner pop-culture plays a more ethnocentric role. By focusing on Europe during this period, it specifically discredits or ignores the advancements of Africa, the Middle East, India, and Asia; since it seems they made significantly more advancements. Perhaps, it is our own societies' prevalent orientalism and racist attitudes which has led to the continued mischaracterization of medieval history as the “Dark Ages.”

The Mongol Hoarde

From the steppes of Central and East Asia rose a nomadic-pastoralist peoples intent on world domination. These people were the Mongols; a people who utterly reshaped 13th and 14th century Eurasia into an era of epic historical importance. These shamanistic peoples challenged the great monotheistic powers and ultimately unified much of Eurasia under their rule. Eventually, it is what some believed to be these very godly forces, which the Mongols seemed to challenge, that would result in their great empire fracturing. The legacy left behind would be one of profound genetic diversity, coexistence, subjugation, and death.

It is written in The Secret History of the Mongols that the Great Khan, Temujin (1162-1227), was born with a pot of blood in his hands. Like his forefathers, Kabul Khan (1100-1148), Hutula Khan (1111-1161), and Yusegei (1134-1171); the young Temujin dreamed of restoring Mongol unity. His father, Yusegei, abducted Temujin’s mother, Hoelun (1142-1208), from the Merkit tribe. During Hoelun’s pregnancy, Yusegei invaded the Tatars of Manchuria with two other allied Mongol tribes. He captured a senior Tartar also named Temujin and brought him back home. It is this captured enemy that Yusegei’s son would be named after. When his son turned eight years old, he fixed him a wife. Her name was Borte (1161-1230), and in accordance with the Mongol tradition, Yusegei sent Temujin to live with Borte and her family. Out of revenge, the Tartars poisoned Yusegei, and just before his death, he summoned his son Temujin to come home. Temujin and his family were left to fend for themselves, as his cousins and extended family turned their backs. During Temujin’s childhood, Hoelun and the women around him would be the ones that made sure the family survived. Temujin lived a very harsh childhood, surviving raiding parties and even killing his half-brother over fish. Eventually, when he was sixteen, he married his wife Borte. It is soon after this that the Merkits returned to bring justice to his father’s crimes. The Merkit tribe abducted Borte and sent Temujin running for the mountains. After hiding in the mountains for several days, Temujin reemerged with the single goal of rescuing Borte. It is this decision to rescue his wife that initiates what would eventually become the great Mongol Empire (1206-1368). Temujin calls upon all his favors from all the tribes and assembles a fighting force of 12,000 men. These men attacked the Merkits and Borte was rescued by Temujin. It is after this battle that a tribal council is summoned and Temujin is renamed Genghis Khan (1206-1227), which means “the ruler of everything, from ocean to ocean.” This is partly in response to his blood brother, Jamukha (1162-1206), rising to power as the Gur Khan (1201-1206), or “universal ruler.” For 20 years, Genghis Khan and Gur Khan would battle for control of Mongolia. In a poetic ending to the rivalry, Genghis Khan would win after defeating Gur Khan who hid away with the Merkits. It is after this victory when Genghis Khan calls a Kurultai: a meeting of all the Mongol tribes. The Mongol tribes elect Genghis Khan the leader of all the Mongol tribes.

With Genghis Khan in charge of the Mongols, we see that he institutes a Mongolian writing system and breaks down family ties. Instead of armies being loyal to separate tribes, Genghis Khan creates one army loyal to the Mongol Khanate. The newly found empire needed resources otherwise it would fracture, so Genghis Khan decided to raid kingdoms in the immediate territory. He first started with the Western Xia (1038-1227) in East Turkestan (Uyghurstan), which was a small ethnically Uyghur empire, now in modern-day China. Genghis Khan succeeded and gathered a fighting force to attack the Chinese Jin Dynasty (1115-1234). After taking some Jin territory Genghis Khan was forced to focus attention on the Kara-Khitan Khanate (1124-1218) in Kazakhstan, which the Mongols would eventually take over. Genghis Khan would not live to see the Jin Dynasty under Mongol rule, but his successor, Ogadei, eventually conquered the Jin Dynasty. Ogadei went on to expand the empire all the way into Eastern Europe. From all over the Eurasian continent people feared the Mongols. This combined with the utilizations of extensive trade routes, such as the Silk Road, initiated an era of peace. This era is known as Pax Mongolica or “Mongol Peace.” Peace across Eurasia established significant trade and cultural exchange. National and ethnic identities would become very diverse as Mongols and various peoples would settle down in places outside of their traditionally ethnic regions. During this era, humanity became significantly more mixed genetically, ethnically, and culturally.

[On a side note: my tribe, the Bayat tribe, as we call it in Iraq, actually originated in Mongolia. When Genghis Khan came to power not all the tribes united and one of those tribes that didn’t unite was my tribe, the Bayad or Baya’ud tribe in Mongolian. The Bayad (which means “rich” or “riches”) tribe was already very ethnically diverse, but were driven out by Genghis Khan and scattered all over Eurasia. Some ended up in China, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Azerbaijan, Iran, Turkey, Syria and Iraq. I speculate that my ancestors specifically ended up in Azerbaijan where they quickly split into two groups. One group stayed in Azerbaijan and the other group migrated into Iraq and Syria. My ancestors specifically settled in Iraq and the Bayat tribe eventually merged with the population and is now considered an Arab tribe.

I wanted to share this just to articulate how genetically and culturally diverse our world is today. While I identify as Iraq, I could genetically be related to Mongolians or Kazakh peoples. I have tribal families all over Eurasia who all are a part of various versions of the Bayat tribe. If I have lineage which can be traced from all over, what really am I? In many ways, ethnicity and more importantly race, is too rigid of a category. While we can tie our ethnic origins to culture and language, our very existence is proof that racial categories are non-existent since we are too genetically diverse to be pinned to a specific “race.”

What is also very cool is that the Bayad tribe is featured in the Netflix show Marco Polo (2014). It is the tribe which Princess Kokochin belonged to, and while her story within the show is mostly fictitious, she was a real person and possibly even an ancestor of mine! I am very blessed to be able to trace my ancestry that far back and realize not many, in America especially, have that luxury. Hopefully, my ancestral story helps some of you understand a bit more about the era.]

The Mongol Empire would not last forever and due to the forces of nature, a plague would ravage across the empire and the Afro-Eurasian world. This era of bubonic plague was known as the Black Death (1346-1352) and is believed to originate from the Eurasian steppe-land of the Mongol peoples. The plague would lead to the fracture of the Mongol Empire into various hordes and khanates, eventually resulting in its demise. Ironically, it was the strong trade routes solidified by the era of Pax Mongolica that would facilitate the spread of the plague. Fleas and rats carrying the disease would hitch a ride on caravans and carry it throughout China, the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe. What specifically exacerbated the spread of plague in Europe, Egypt, Syria, and the Mediterranean was Jani Beg’s (1342-1357), Siege of Caffa (1346) in Crimea. It is during this siege that the Mongols would utilize a tactic of catapulting plague-ridden corpses into the city. The Mongols failed in their attempt to take the city, but by that time it was too late. Crimeans had already started to contract the disease and spread it into Italy through trading ships traveling from the port-city of Caffa. The bubonic plague was lethal and wiped-out cities across the Mediterranean. Europeans would eventually develop an entire culture around this event that personified and glorified death. This movement was called the macabre, and literature like the Ars Moriendi (15th century) illustrated how to “die a good death.” Many Christians and Muslims around the Mediterranean saw the Black Death as the Wrath of God and would turn to astrology for answers. In Egypt, the price of silver became more valuable than gold as many Muslims turned to talismans and magic, as to ward them from disease, a forbidden practice in Islam. Interestingly, parts of the Muslim world would be untouched by the plague, such as the Muslim ruled India and the isolated city of Medina. In Europe, many feudal nobles fled populated areas for the less populated countryside. Self-mortification such as flagella became common practice to “calm God’s wrath.” It is estimated that the Black Death killed around 50 million Europeans and 200 million people in Asia and the Middle East.

The legacies of the 13th and 14th centuries are extensive, intriguing, and truly epic. From the rise of the Great Khan and his Mongol Empire that almost conquered Eurasia, to a pandemic which plagued the world, it is evident society was reshaped then grievously torn apart. But the legacy of such an era proved to humanity that we are not so different from one another. Every civilization and kingdom can just as easily be conquered by tenacious peoples or decimated by the forces of nature. It is this era that showed potential for global unity and understanding, something many strive for in the Modern Era. As society continues it may be that we are prudent to look back on our ancestors as a guide and inspiration.

Defining the Millenniums

“The art of war is of vital importance to the State. It is a matter of life and death, a road either to safety or to ruin. Hence it is a subject of inquiry which can on no account be neglected.” — Sun Tzu, The Art of War.

Societal collapse, as it is understood, consists of the destruction or reformation of culture and government. When examining these historical examples of societal collapse we find external threats culminate in the fall of a society; whereas internal conflict and natural disasters prove to, more frequently, be obstacles for a society. Throughout history we see ancient peoples document various battles, wars, and invasions as events of great importance. It is these external threats characterized by war and invasion which proved the most destructive for societies around the globe.

In ancient Egypt we see the fall of the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BCE) is categorized by the invasion of the Hyksos pastoralists. The Hyksos subjugate the Egyptians and it isn’t till Ahmose I (ruled 1567-1542 BCE), that the Egyptian people are liberated and the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BCE) is established. During this period the Egyptians undergo a severe culture change, as their society becomes more militaristic. In Europe, the matriarchal Minoans (3500-1100 BCE) of Crete were a technologically advanced and peaceful Mediterranean peoples. Their culture and civilization was destroyed by the warlike Mycenaeans (1750-1050 BCE). The Mycenaeans were wiped out by the Sea Peoples, who killed 95% of the population, and stopped the cultural advancements of literature, art, and architecture. These same Sea Peoples also attacked Egypt and Mesopotamia, placing civilizations around the Mediterranean and Fertile Crescent into periods of recessions. In these three instances, we see that the collapse of society is due to invasion by external threats. While one can argue that Mycenaean states were in a constant state of war due to internal conflicts, it was the Sea Peoples invasion which was the breaking-point that led to their cultural stagnation and societal collapse.

The Chinese Warring States Period (500-221 BCE) is a prime example of how internal conflicts define a society. Chinese internal conflicts gave way to intellectuals and philosophers which would shape Chinese culture and governance for thousands of years. Philosophies like Taoism, Confucianism, and Legalism propelled Chinese advancements. We also see that China quells its internal conflicts and becomes united under the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE). During this period it was internal political revolutions, such as the Qin Land Reform (4th century BCE) and Mie Zu (“destruction of lineage”) which allowed China to progress. Under the leadership of Qin Shi Huang Di (259-210 BCE) and his advisor Li Si (280-208 BCE) extensive imperial highways, and stable currency systems were established. After Shi Huang Di’s death and the end of the Qin Dynasty, the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) came to power. The reign of the Han Dynasty was characterized by constant conflict with the Xiongnu. It was this conflict which created global ramifications as the Han Dynasty successfully defeated the Xiongnu, inadvertently dispersing them all over Eurasia. The Southern Xiongnu were “accepted” into China under the Jin Dynasty (265-420 CE), but eventually revolted after mistreatment by the state. They took much of the Chinese territory and China went into a period of weakness for 300 years.

While the Southern Xiongnu ravaged China, the Northern Xiongnu split into two groups: the Black Huns and the White Huns. The Black Huns traveled to north-eastern Europe where they encountered the Germanic tribes. Whereas the White Huns entered Persia and India. The Persians attempted to hold off the White Hun invasion, but failed, and thus their empire was disrupted by an external threat. In Europe, the Black Huns defeated the Germanic tribes, which caused the Germanic tribes to migrate south into the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire, 330-1453 CE). They conquered the Eastern Roman Empire and eventually much of the Western Roman Empire (286-476 CE). This disruption from nomadic peoples throughout Eurasia proved so destructive that it is characterized as the end of ancient history.

In the events of Islamic expansion we see a similar instance of nomadic-pastoralists significantly disrupting the Afro-Eurasian world. As the Bedouins emerged from Arabia and expanded into the Byzantine Empire and Sassanid Empire (224-651 CE), they spread with them a new monotheistic faith. We see this faith proves extremely influential throughout North Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia. Cultures relatively polytheist or shamanist, are completely changed and significantly influenced by Islamic culture. Similar to Christian expansion, peoples within a specific region morph their culture around the Islamic religion. This results in some traditions seen as forbidden under the Islamic culture (such as magic, talismans, astrology, etc.) being mostly left behind by the peoples affected by Islam. While it is true that most civilizations flourished under Islamic rule, it is evident that their cultures underwent transformation. This transformation in culture can be seen as a form of societal collapse. For example, Christian expansion led to the abandonment of Roman polytheism and conversion to Christianity. This conversion by the government and local population meant a change in laws, beliefs, and social taboos. The same can be said for cultures influenced by Islam. For example, the Persians abandoned Zoroastrianism and converted to Islam. This led to their society developing culture and beliefs more similar to Islam rather than Zoroastrianism. In other words, the previously existing culture assimilated into the dominant culture, in order to either preserve unity, or gain certain benefits provided by the dominant culture.

One of the most detrimental of external threats however, is perhaps, the Mongol Empire (1206-1368 CE). Proving to be the largest empire (by land mass) in human history, the Mongols ruthlessly took over civilizations from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea. Mongol rule affected everyone and their expansion caused the deaths of millions. Civilizations like Persia and China were decimated and turned into Mongol proxy-states. Furthermore, the Islamic Golden Age (8th-13th [possibly 16th] centuries) is traditionally seen as to have been ended (contested by some historians/scholars) by the Mongols, with the Siege of Baghdad (1258 CE), and collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 CE). While much of Eurasia entered into a period of Pax Mongolica (“Mongol Peace”), we see that it is this global unification which would facilitate the spread of bubonic plague. This era of plague is known as the Black Death (1346-1352) and is estimated to have killed 250 million people (Benedictow’s estimations).

When analyzing the historical ramifications, we see that even if a civilization was under internal conflict at the time of collapse, the internal threats were not enough to collapse said civilization. It took external forces to collapse a government or completely change the culture of a society. When comparing external threats to natural disasters, we see that natural disasters are simply not common enough or were too insignificant to be documented. Furthermore, external threats to a society were oftentimes far more visible. People within a society may have not recognized internal conflict as urgent, or it may have been a gradual change; and natural disasters were unpredictable to ancient peoples, often brushed off as the will of the divine. External forces were extremely influential and a consistent destructive threat to societies. The will of external forces, enacted through the means of war and invasion, meant that they were inherently violent, destructive, and detrimental to the opposing society. Even today, the tradition of militaries continues out of fear of an opposing country or external force. Our human history is viewed through a timeline of war, and until we are free from the cages of xenophobia and indifference, it is likely it will continue as such.